People in the Karakoram use discharge from glaciers during summer for irrigation and other purposes. While the glacial meltwater supply during hot and dry periods will vary as a result of climate change, Karakoram glaciers so far have not shown a consistent reaction to climatic change, although climate scenarios indicate severe future impacts in the high-elevation regions of the Himalaya and Karakoram. Field measurements on Hinarche Glacier in Bagrot Valley are combined with remote sensing information and climate observations to investigate the meltwater production of the glacier and estimate the meltwater discharge in the valley.Special emphasis was placed on ice melt beneath supraglacial debris, which is the common process on the glacier tongues in the region. The calculated annual meltwater production of about 135 million m3 for Hinarche Glacier shows the order of magnitude for glacier runoff in such environments. Glacial meltwater production is about 300 million m3 per year for the entire valley under balanced conditions. This analysis serves as a basis for further investigations concerning temporal meltwater variability and potential water usage by the local population.

A distributed surface energy-balance study was performed to determine sub debris ablation across a large part of Baltoro glacier, a wide debris-covered glacier in the Karakoram range, Pakistan. The study area is ca 124km2. The study aimed primarily at analyzing the influence of debris thickness on the melt distribution. The spatial distribution of the physical and thermal characteristics of the debris was calculated from remote-sensing (ASTER image) and field data. Meteorological data from an automatic weather station at Urdukas (4022ma.s.l.), located adjacent to Baltoro glacier on a lateral moraine, were used to calculate the spatial distribution of energy available for melting during the period 1–15 July 2004. The model performance was evaluated by comparisons with field measurements for the same period. The model is reliable in predicting ablation over wide debris covered areas. It underestimates melt rates over highly crevassed areas and water ponds with a high variability of the debris thickness distribution in the vicinity, and over areas with very low debris thickness (<0.03 m). We also examined the spatial distribution of the energy-balance components (global radiation and surface temperature) over the study area. The results allow us to quantify, for the study period, a meltwater production of 0.058km3.

The CNR1 is manufactured by Kipp & Zonen for applications requiring research-grade performance. The radiometer measures the energy balance between incoming short-wave and long-wave infrared radiation versus surface-refl ected short-wave and outgoing long-wave infrared radiation. The CNR1 consists of a pyranometer and pyrgeometer pair that faces upward and a complementary pair that faces downward. The pyranometers and pyrgeometers measure short-wave and far infrared radiation, respectively. All four sensors are calibrated to an identical sensitivity coeffi cient. Th e CNR1 also includes an RTD to measure the radiometer’s internal temperature,a 4WPB100 module to interface the RTD with the datalogger, and a heater that can be used to prevent condensation. Technical Characteristics: Sensors: Kipp & Zonen’s CM3 ISO-class, thermopile pyranometer, CG3 pyrgeometer, PT100 RTD Spectral response Pyranometer: 305 to 2800 nm Pyrgeometer: 5000 to 50,000 nm Response Time: 18 seconds Typical Sensitivity Range: 7 to 15 μV W-1 m2 Output Range Pyranometer: 0 to 25 mV Pyrgeometer: ±5 mV Expected Accuracy for Daily Totals: ±10% Directional Error: <25 W m-2 (pyranometer) Heating Resistor: 24 Ohms, 6 W at 12 Vdc Operating Temperature: -40° to 70°C Dimensions Mounting Arm Diameter: 0.625 in. (1.6 cm) Mounting Arm Length: 14.5 in. (37 cm) Radiometer: 9.1 x 3.1 x 6.1 in. (23.2 x 8.0 x 15.6 cm) Weight: 8.8 lbs (4 kg) Datalogger Requirements: Six diff erential or four singleended and two diff erential analog channels CE Compliance: CE compliant under the European Union’s EMC directive

A Kalman-filter based inverse emission estimation method for long-lived trace gases is presented for use in conjunction with a Lagrangian particle dispersion model like FLEXPART. The sequential nature of the approach allows tracing slow seasonal and interannual changes rather than estimating a single period-mean emission field. Other important features include the estimation of a slowly varying concentration background at each measurement station, the possibility to constrain the solution to non-negative emissions, the quantification of uncertainties, the consideration of temporal correlations in the residuals, and the applicability to potentially large inversion problems. The method is first demonstrated for a set of synthetic observations created from a prescribed emission field with different levels of (correlated) noise, which closely mimics true observations. It is then applied to real observations of the three halocarbons HFC-125, HFC-152a and HCFC-141b at the remote research stations Jungfraujoch and Mace Head for the quantification of emissions in Western European countries from 2006 to 2010. Estimated HFC-125 emissions are mostly consistent with national totals reported to the Kyoto protocol and show a generally increasing trend over the considered period. Results for HFC-152a are much more variable with estimated emissions being both higher and lower in different countries. The highest emissions of the order of 1000 Mg yr-1 are estimated for Italy which so far does not report HFC-152a emissions. Emissions of HCFC-141b show a continuing strong decrease as expected due to its ban under the Montreal Protocol. Emissions from France, however, were still rather large (near 1000 Mg yr-1) in the years 2006 and 2007 but strongly declined thereafter.

We describe the application of a three-laser tunable diode laser absorption spectrometer (TDLAS), called 'tracer in-situ TDLAS for atmospheric research' (TRISTAR), to measure nitrogen dioxide (NO2), formaldehyde (HCHO) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), during an intensive measurement campaign on Mt. Cimone (44 degrees 11'N, 10 degrees 42'E, 2165 m asl), Northern Appenines, Italy in June 2000 as part of the EU-project 'mineral dust and tropospheric chemistry' (MINATROC). The TRISTAR instrument was a major component of an instrument package, provided by the Max-Planck-Insitut für Chemie, to investigate free tropospheric gas-phase chemistry over the Appenines. Here we discuss the optical, electronic, gas flow, and calibration setup of the TDLAS used during the campaign. We characterized extensively the instrument's performance during a preparatory phase in the laboratory and compared the laboratory results to the in-field results. Consistency checks with additional trace gas measurements obtained during the campaign create high confidence in the measured concentrations. Correlations between different trace gas species, along with other evaluation tools, allow a full chemical characterization of air masses to meet the goals of the campaign.

Special Issue:Sixth Scientific Conference of the International Global Atmospheric Chemistry Project (IGAC) Bologna, Italy; 13–17 September 1999

The CNR-ISAC station in Lecce is located about 4 km (SW) of the urban area and it can be classified as an “urban background” site. The site is located at about 30 km and 80 km from the most important industrial centres of the Puglia Region (Taranto and Brindisi). The observatory is accommodated in a shelter located on the roof of the Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (Division of Lecce), at about 12 m above the street, inside the University Campus. The observatory is used for the collection of environmental continuous data related to local meteorology, various gaseous pollutants concentration and different atmospheric particulate fraction. The instrumental check, the data acquisition and data analysis are remotely managed through internet. The roof of the shelter is equipped to take real-time meteorological measurements using a radiometer (Kipp & Zonen, mod. CNR4), that measures solar and thermic radiation, and an automatic wheatear station (Vaisala, mod. WXT520) for the main meteorological parameters acquisition. On the roof of the observatory there are sampling probes for gas and aerosol connected to the measurement instruments located inside the shelter. Outside the observatory there is a booth, which hosts the mixtures of pure gases needed for periodic calibration of gas concentration detectors and a telescopic mast to measure particle number concentration and vertical particle fluxes, using the Eddy-Covariance method by an Ultrafine Condensation Particle Counter UCPC (TSI, mod. 3776) and an ultrasonic anemometer Gill R3. The interior of the shelter is equipped with different instruments for atmospheric and environmental measurements:  Heated gas sampling probe (General Impianti srl) with conditioning of temperature to control relative humidity, connected to a 11 valves manifold.  Aerosol sampling probe, PM10 cut-off, with 10 valves manifold equipped with a high volume pump (Mega System srl, mod. X1-Hornet).  Measurements of particle size distribution in the following intervals: • from 8 nm to 800 nm: Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS produced by the Tropos- Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research, in compliance with Actris specifications). • from 0.28 µm to 10 µm: Optical Particle Counter (OPC FAI instruments, mod. Multichannel).  Particulate sampler (FAI Instruments, mod. SWAM5a Dual Channel) which measures the PM2.5 and PM10 mass concentrations using the measuring principle based on attenuation of β ray.  Measurements of Black Carbon concentrations in atmosphere by a Multi Angle Absorption Photometer (Thermoscientific, mod. 5012).  Measure of atmospheric aerosol back scattering coefficient by a Nephelometer (TSI, mod. 3560).  Measurements of gaseous concentrations, CO, CO2, CH4 and water vapour, by a detector PICARRO (mod. G2401).  Measurements of gaseous concentrations by an ozone automatic analysers (Thermoscientific, mod. 49i) and a nitrogen oxides analysers (Thermoscientific, mod. 42i-TL).  Measurements of the columnar content of gaseous pollutants by a spectrophotometer DOAS which is provided with an external measuring head (located on the observatory roof) connected to the spectrophotometer by optics fibres.  Calibration systems for gas detectors: Multipoint calibrator (Thermoscientific, mod. 146i) used for the nitrogen oxides calibration, ozone generator (Thermoscientific, mod. 49i-PS) for the ozone concentration analyser and zero air generation (Thermoscientific, mod. 146i).  A server station with monitor that communicates with the various instruments and stores the data. The server station operates as a vehicle for the display and the remote data transfer. It is connected to a data logger Campbell Scientific CR1000 with a buffer battery.

The basic meteorological data are measured by a multi-sensor instrument . The Meteorological parameters measured are: - Air temperature unit[deg C], - Atmospheric pressure[hPa], - Relative humidity[%], - Wind speed[m/s] and direction[deg], - Precipitation[mm].

Sulfur Hexafluoride is measured by using a GC-ECD (Agilent 6890N); separation is performed on a double column system (precolumn/backflush and analytical column, both Hayesep Q), isothemrically. Each run is 15 minute long. Each ambient air sample is bracketed with calibration runs. The working standards are based on NOAA2006 scale.