Monte Curcio (MCU) instruments: Fai SWAM Dual Particulate Matter Sampler. The SWAM is a dual channel sampler for particulate matter, and a mass measurement technique. The system combines field-proven beta attenuation analysis with dual-channel sequential sampling yielding simultaneously PM10, PM2.5 and total mass concentration.

Monte Curcio (MCU) instruments: Ecotech Aurora 3000 Nephelometer. The Model Aurora 3000 measures continuously and in real-time, light scattering (the scattering coefficient σsp) in a sample of ambient air due to the presence of particulate matter at three wavelengths (450 Blue, 525 Green and 635 Red). These measurements are combined with backscatter measurements that only sample 90° - 170°, therefore allowing a more in depth analysis of particle scattering. Forward scatter are calculated from subtracting backscatter from total scatter. The measured values are adjusted automatically and in real-time by on-board temperature and pressure sensors.

Monte Curcio (MCU) instruments: API Teledyne 300E carbon monoxide analyser. The Model 300E uses a method based on the Beer-Lambert law, an empirical relationship that relates the absorption of light to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling over a defined distance. In this case the light is infrared radiation (IR) travelling through a sample chamber filled with gas bearing a varying concentration of CO.

A distributed surface energy-balance study was performed to determine sub debris ablation across a large part of Baltoro glacier, a wide debris-covered glacier in the Karakoram range, Pakistan. The study area is ca 124km2. The study aimed primarily at analyzing the influence of debris thickness on the melt distribution. The spatial distribution of the physical and thermal characteristics of the debris was calculated from remote-sensing (ASTER image) and field data. Meteorological data from an automatic weather station at Urdukas (4022ma.s.l.), located adjacent to Baltoro glacier on a lateral moraine, were used to calculate the spatial distribution of energy available for melting during the period 1–15 July 2004. The model performance was evaluated by comparisons with field measurements for the same period. The model is reliable in predicting ablation over wide debris covered areas. It underestimates melt rates over highly crevassed areas and water ponds with a high variability of the debris thickness distribution in the vicinity, and over areas with very low debris thickness (<0.03 m). We also examined the spatial distribution of the energy-balance components (global radiation and surface temperature) over the study area. The results allow us to quantify, for the study period, a meltwater production of 0.058km3.

Monte Curcio (MCU) instruments: API Teledyne 701 zero air generator. The Model 701 is a source of clean, dry air for dilution calibrators. It also may be used as a source of purge air for permeation tube ovens or burner air for FID analysers. The regenerative, heatless dryer removes water and produces gas with a dewpoint of less than -20°C (up to 15 SLPM flow rate) independent of the inlet dewpoint and assists in the removal of other gases, greatly increasing the life of the chemical scrubbers. The basic M701 includes an oil and diaphragm free pump plus scrubbers to remove SO2, NO, NO2, O3 and H2S. Optional high performance scrubbers are available to remove CO and Hydrocarbons. Inlet air is pulled into the pump and routed through a pre-cooler and water trap to remove moisture.

Monte Curcio (MCU) instruments: Picarro G2401 methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water analyser. The Model G2401 is based on cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS), capable of measuring the concentrations e compounds. This technique enables measurement of absolute optical extinction by samples that scatter and absorb light. A laser is used to illuminate a high-finesse optical cavity, which consists of two highly reflective mirrors. When the laser is in resonance with a cavity mode, intensity builds up in the cavity due to constructive interference. The laser is then turned off in order to allow the measurement of the exponentially decaying light intensity leaking from the cavity. During this decay, light is reflected back and forth thousands of times between the mirrors giving an effective path length for the extinction on the order of a few kilometres.

During the recent Italian expedition ‘K2 2004 – 50 years later’ (June–July 2004) on Baltoro glacier, Karakoram, Pakistan, glaciological field experiments were carried out on the debris-covered area of this high-elevation glacier. The aim was to investigate the ice ablation and its relations with debris thermal properties and meteorological conditions. Ablation measurements along the glacier up to about 5000m and within a dedicated test field were combined with meteorological data from two automatic weather stations located at Urdukas (4022ma.s.l.) and at K2 Base Camp (5033ma.s.l.). In addition, temperature measurements of the debris cover at different depth levels along the glacier allowed the calculation of debris surface temperature and of the debris thermal resistance (R). Using the air temperature, the local mean lapse rate (0.00758 K/m) and the measured ablation, the degree-day factors (K) at different locations on the glacier were calculated. The ice ablation rates were related to debris thickness and elevation. They are typically on the order of 4cm/ day during the observation period. However, it was found that the surface topography (slope, aspect) has an influence on the total ablation similar to that of the debris thickness. Thermal resistance of the debris cover and its distribution over the glacier were estimated. Finally, a best-guess estimate of the total meltwater production was calculated from available climate data.

Monte Curcio (MCU) instruments: API Teledyne 700 mass flow calibrator. The Model M700 can generate diluted calibration gas including ozone, gas phase titration (NO2) from gas cylinders, or from a permeation tube source gas. Each concentration is generated precisely by mixing the gas with diluent zero air in which the mixing ratio is controlled by the mass flow controller. The diluent air mass flow controller has a range of 10 SLPM (20 SLPM option), and the gas mass flow controller has a range of 100 cc/min. (0-50 cc/min., 0-200cc/min. options). The mass flow controllers assure a precise mixing ratio for accurate and precise calibration gas generation using the state-of- the-art electronic closed-loop control.