The DQA035 Lsi-Lastem rain gauge is mounted on a 1,5 m mast. This model of Rain gauge has a 1.000 cmq collector area. The measurement device is composed of a collector cone and a double chamber bascule connected to a magnete that operates one (optional two) reed switch, which generates impulses that can be counted by external meters: each impulse is equal to 0.2 mm of rain (optional from 0.1 to 0.5 mm). The mechanical and electrical specifications are: - Collector surface area: 1000 cmq - Collector area diameter: 420 mm - Measurements range: 180 mm/hr - Resolution: o,2 mm/imp. (opt. 0,1; 0,3; 0,4; 0,5; mm/imp.) - Accuracy: 0-1 mm/min: 1% 1-3 mm/min: 2% 3-5 mm/min: 4% 5-10 mm/min: 8% - Contact: 1 reed (opt. N.2 reed) 0,5 A/24V non inductive - Pulse duration: 100 msec.± 5 - Collector cone material: Brass - External housing material: Inox AISI30 - Tipping bucket material: Alluminium - Cable: 10 m - Weight: 6,3 kg - Power supply: /thermocover 100 W, 24 Vca/Va

Background and Aims Alpine plants are considered one of the groups of species most sensitive to the direct and indirect threats to ecosystems caused by land use and climate change. Collecting and banking seeds of plant species is recognized as an effective tool for providing propagating material to re-establish wild plant populations and for habitat repair. However, seeds from cold wet environments have been shown to be relatively short lived in storage, and therefore successful long-term seed conservation for alpine plants may be difficult. Here, the life spans of 69 seed lots representing 63 related species from alpine and lowland locations from northern Italy are compared. Methods Seeds were placed into experimental storage at 45 °C and 60 % relative humidity (RH) and regularly sampled for germination. The time taken in storage for viability to fall to 50 % (p50) was determined using probit analysis and used as a measure of relative seed longevity between seed lots. Key Results Across species, p50 at 45 °C and 60 % RH varied from 4•7 to 95•5 d. Seed lots from alpine populations/species had significantly lower p50 values compared with those from lowland populations/species; the lowland seed lots showed a slower rate of loss of germinability, higher initial seed viability, or both. Seeds were progressively longer lived with increased temperature and decreased rainfall at the collecting site. Conclusions Seeds of alpine plants are short lived in storage compared with those from lowland populations/related taxa. The lower resistance to ageing in seeds of alpine plants may arise from low selection pressure for seed resistance to ageing and/or damage incurred during seed development due to the cool wet conditions of the alpine climate. Long-term seed conservation of several alpine species using conventional seed banking methods will be problematic.

The Pyramid Meteorological Network, located in Himalaya (Nepal), on the southern slopes of Mt. Everest is composed of 7 meteorological stations located between 2660 and 7986 m a.s.l., which have collected continuous climatic data during the last 30 years (1994-2023). These data are here available for download and specific for each parameter and each station on the dedicated Geoportal: https://geoportal.mountaingenius.org/portal/index.php/data/

In 2008 at South Col the CombiSD DNA022 sensor (LSI-Lastem, Italy) was installed. During the 2011 expedition, this sensor was replaced with a prototype (LSI-Lastem) to support with another sensor manufactured by VAISALA: WA15D7B. The WA15 is based on accurate sensors installed on a large crossarm. It is designed for demanding wind measurement applications. Three lightweight, conical cups mounted on the cup wheel, provide excellent linearity over the entire operating range, up to 75 m/s. A wind-rotated chopper disc attached to the shaft of the cup wheel cuts an infrared light beam 14 times per revolution. This generates a pulse output from the phototransistor. The output pulse rate is directly proportional to wind speed (e.g. 246 Hz = 24.6 m/s). However, for the highest accuracy, the characteristic transfer function should be used to compensate for starting inertia.

The CNR 4 net radiometer measures the energy balance between incoming short-wave and long-wave Far Infrared (FIR) radiation versus surface-reflected short-wave and outgoing long-wave radiation. The CNR 4 net radiometer consists of a pyranometer pair, one facing upward, the other facing downward, and a pyrgeometer pair in a similar configuration. The pyranometer pair measures the short-wave radiation. And the pyrgeometer pair measures long-wave radiation. The upper long-wave detector of CNR 4 has a meniscus dome. This ensures that water droplets role off easily and improves the field of view to nearly 180°, compared with a 150° for a flat window. All 4 sensors are integrated directly into the instrument body, instead of separate modules mounted onto the housing. But are each calibrated individually for optimal accuracy. Two temperature sensors, a Pt-100 and Thermistor, are integrated for compatibility with every data logger. The temperature sensor is used to provide information to correct the infrared readings for the temperature of the instrument housing. Care has been taken to place the long-wave sensors close to each other and close to the temperature sensors. This assures that the temperatures of the measurement surfaces are the same and accurately known. Which improves the quality of the long-wave measurements. Technical Characteristics: Spectral range: 300 to 2800 (short wave) nm Spectral range: 4500 to 42000 (long wave) nm Sensitivity: 5 to 20 µV/W/m² Temperature dependence of sensitivity (-10 ºC to +40 ºC) : < 4 % Response time: < 18 s Non-linearity: < 1 % Operating temperature: -40 to 80 °C Ventilation power (of the optional CNF 4 ventilation unit): 10 W

The Forni Automatic Weather Station has been installed on Forni Glacier on September 26, 2005 at 2669 m asl. This station represents the first Italian permanent above glacial AWS, that supply a big number of information about micro-meteorological conditions on surface of an Italian Alpine glacier. In particular, this station is located in the Glacial Ablation area and permits to measure both the winter accumulation and the thermal conditions and in-coming/out-coming energetic fluxes that rules the losses of glacial masses during the summer period. Geographical coordinates: - Latitude: 46° 23’ 56.0” N - Longitude: 10° 35’ 25.2” E

In both 2008 and 2011 expeditions a CM6B Kipp&Zonen radiometer was installed at South Col. This sensor is a first class pyranometer as defined by the World Meteorological Organization. It is suitable for the measurement of solar irradiance on a plane surface (W/m2). It incorporates a 64-thermocouple sensor, which is rotationally symmetrical, housed under K5 domes. A white screen prevents the body of the pyranometer from heating up. The pyranometer is supplied with a spirit level and screws for accurate levelling. CM6B technical data - Spectral range 305 to 2800 nm (50%points) - Sensitivity 9 to 15 ?V/Wm-2 - Impedance 70 to 100 Ohm - Response time 1/e 5 s, 99 % 55 s - Non-linearity <1.5 % (<1000 W/m 2 ) - Tilt error <1.5 % at 1000 W/m 2 - Operating temperature -40 to +90 °C - Temperature dependence of sensitivity _2 % (-10 to +40 °C) - Maximum irradiance 2000 W/m2 - Directional error < _20 W/m2 at 1000 W/m2 - Weight 0.85 kg - Cable length 10 m

In 2008 expedition, at South Col was installed the DMA572 termohygrometer, that was replaced during the 2011 expedition with two DMA672 termohygrometers and one DMA033 thermometer. All these sensors are manufactered by LSI-Lastem (Italy). DMA 672 thermohygrometer is an instrument for measuring temperature and relative humidity and suitable for a continuous measurement in severe environments; in presence of deep thermal and hygrometric ranges with high sun radiant heat. An importatnt feature of this set of sensor is that the thermohygrometric sensitive element is easily replaceable, in order to have a simple and rapid ordinary maintenance and avoiding calibration. The Thermohygrometer has supported a considerable improvement, owing to a deep technical and styling development process: a fan ensures a continuos air change around the sensor in order to eliminate temperature fault caused by radiant heat. Technical characteristics for temperature: Range: -30 to 70°C Sensitive element: Pt100 Class B 1/3 DIN Sensitive element replacement: sensor replacement Accuracy (Repeatability+ Hysteresis): ±0,1°C (0°C) Resolution: n.a. Response time (Sens. Element): 10 s Thermal drift: n.a. Long term stability: <1°C year Operating temperature: -50°÷100°C Technical characteristics for relative humidity: Range: 0 to100% Sensitive element: Capacitive Sensitive element replacement: sensor replacement Accuracy (Repeatability+ Hysteresis): 1,5% (5 to 95%, 23°C) Resolution: 0,12% Response time (Sens. element): 10 s Thermal drift: Max ± 1,5% Long term stability: <1 RH% year DMA033 Thermometer is well-suited for environmental outdoor measurements, with natural or forced ventilation antiradiant shield. Technical characteristics: Range : -40 to70°C Sensitive element: Pt100 1/3 DIN-B Accuracy: ±0,1C (0°C) Repeatability: 1/5 accuracy Electric output: Pt100 ? 1/3 DIN Operating temperature: -40°to 95°C Protection (vertical pos.): IP66

PM is measured using the optical particle counter (OPC GRIMM 190), which measures the size distributions for particle with diameters greater than 0.25 up to 32µm by means of 90° laser light scattering. The Aerosol number concentration measurement is a subset of core variables that are recommended by the GAW Scientific Advisory Group on Aerosols for long-term measurements in the global network.

Measurement data obtained at the Station Nepal Climate Observatory at Pyramid. The measured parameter is Particle number concentrations units of #/cm3 per size bin, range size= 0.25 ...30 µm in 31 channels.