The purpose of the present work was to investigate variations in the surface areas of lakes in the north-east sector of Sagarmatha National Park (Nepal) at the end of the 20th century, through comparison of the Mount Everest maps based on a survey done in the early 1980s, and the official Map of Nepal based on a survey done at the beginning of the 1990s. The analysis of the changes occurring between the 1980s and the 1990s in the surface areas and distribution of lakes in the north-east sector of SNP reveals that lake areas substantially increased, by 15.4 (-5.5; +5.7)% (median 12.5%), within hydrographic basins that included a certain amount of glacial cover. In fact, 96% of the lakes whose surface area increased are located in glacial basins. Conversely, the majority of the lakes without glacial cover in their catchment showed a reduction in surface area, and in many cases disappeared (83% of the lakes that disappeared were situated in basins without glaciers). This different behaviour of these two types of lakes, though observed over a short time span, would appear to be consistent with the consequences of temperature increases recorded from the beginning of 1980s on a global and local scale. The digital tool produced (Limnological Information System, LIS) as part of this work is intended to provide a useful platform for extending the analysis to entire area of SNP, as well as for subsequent comparisons based on earlier maps or more recent satellite images.

In 2013 the Wind Set WA15 by Vaisala has been installed in Lukla. Overview • High-performance wind measurement set • Long and successful track record in meteorological applications • Low measurement starting threshold • Conical anemometer cups provide excellent linearity • Heated shaft prevents bearings from freezing Technical Specifications Wind speed Sensor / transducer type: cup anemometer / opto-chopper Measurement range: 0.4...75 m/s Starting threshold: <0.5 m/s * Distance constant: 2.0 m Accuracy (range 0.4...60 m/s) with characteristic transfer function: ±0.17 m/s ** with transfer function U=0.1xR: ±0.5 m/s Wind direction Sensor / transducer type: vane / optical code disc Measurement range: 0...360° Starting threshold: <0.4 m/s Delay distance: 0.4 m Resolution: ±2.8° Accuracy: better than ±3°

In Lukla the CX115P Lsi-Lastem barometer is connected with a measurement system (recorder, data logger) that accepts analog signals. The barometer works according to the piezometric principle: a resistive film is deposited on a slice of silica with a bridge form; as the pressure changes, the slice will deform and consequently changes the system's resistance. The CX115P model mounts a special thermal compensation system that significantly reduces drift. General characteristics: Range: 800 ž 1100 hPa (1 hPa=1 mBar) Sea level correction range: -300...+2000 mt. Thermal drift: 0,01 hPa/°C (-10..+60°C) Linearity&Hysteresis: < 0,3% of the range Overload: max. 2 Pa Load resi stance: Current output types: <500W. Power consumption: 3 W Response time (T90): 1 ms Environmental limits: -25 .. +60°C Output connections: terminals Weight: 650 gr. Housing case material: Plastic Protection: IP40 Downward cable outlet

At the Lukla station the the CM6B pyranometer, manufactured by Kipp & Zonen is installed. This sensor is a first class pyranometer as defined by the World Meteorological Organization. It is suitable for the measurement of solar irradiance on a plane surface (W/m2). It incorporates a 64-thermocouple sensor, which is rotationally symmetrical, housed under K5 domes. A white screen prevents the body of the pyranometer from heating up. The pyranometer is supplied with a spirit level and screws for accurate levelling. CM6B technical data - Spectral range 305 to 2800 nm (50%points) - Sensitivity 9 to 15 ?V/Wm-2 - Impedance 70 to 100 Ohm - Response time 1/e 5 s, 99 % 55 s - Non-linearity <1.5 % (<1000 W/m 2 ) - Tilt error <1.5 % at 1000 W/m 2 - Operating temperature -40 to +90 °C - Temperature dependence of sensitivity _2 % (-10 to +40 °C) - Maximum irradiance 2000 W/m2 - Directional error < _20 W/m2 at 1000 W/m2 - Weight 0.85 kg - Cable length 10 m

The CNR 4 net radiometer hes been installed in Lukla in 2013 and it consists of a pyranometer pair, one facing upward, the other facing downward, and a pyrgeometer pair in a similar configuration. The pyranometer pair measures the short-wave radiation. And the pyrgeometer pair measures long-wave radiation. The upper long-wave detector of CNR 4 has a meniscus dome. This ensures that water droplets role off easily and improves the field of view to nearly 180°, compared with a 150° for a flat window. All 4 sensors are integrated directly into the instrument body, instead of separate modules mounted onto the housing. But are each calibrated individually for optimal accuracy. Two temperature sensors, a Pt-100 and Thermistor, are integrated for compatibility with every data logger. The temperature sensor is used to provide information to correct the infrared readings for the temperature of the instrument housing. Care has been taken to place the long-wave sensors close to each other and close to the temperature sensors. This assures that the temperatures of the measurement surfaces are the same and accurately known. Which improves the quality of the long-wave measurements. Technical Characteristics: Spectral range: 300 to 2800 (short wave) nm Spectral range: 4500 to 42000 (long wave) nm Sensitivity: 5 to 20 µV/W/m² Temperature dependence of sensitivity (-10 ºC to +40 ºC) : < 4 % Response time: < 18 s Non-linearity: < 1 % Operating temperature: -40 to 80 °C Ventilation power (of the optional CNF 4 ventilation unit): 10 W

The CNR1 net radiometer by Kipp & Zonen is for applications requiring research-grade performance. The radiometer measures the energy balance between incoming short-wave and long-wave IR radiation versus surface-reflected short-wave and outgoing long-wave IR radiation. The CNR1 consists of a pyranometer and pyrgeometer pair that faces upward and a complementary pair that faces downward. The pyranometers and pyrgeometers measure short-wave and far infrared radiation, respectively. The CNR1 also includes an RTD to measure the radiometer’s internal temperature and a heater that can be used to prevent condensation. CNR1 Specifications Sensors: Kipp & Zonen’s CM3 ISO-class, thermopile pyranometer, CG3 pyrgeometer, PT100 RTD Spectral Response Pyranometer: 305 to 2800 nm Pyrgeometer: 5000 to 50,000 nm Response Time: 18 seconds Sensitivity Range: 7 to 15 ?V W-1 m2 Output Range Pyranometer: 0 to 25 mV Pyrgeometer: ±5 mV Expected Accuracy for Daily Totals: ±10% Directional Error: <25 W m-2 (pyranometer) Heating Resistor: 24 Ohms, 6 W at 12 Vdc CE Compliance: CE compliant under the European Union’s EMC directive

The Win-Situ multiparametric probe TROLL 9500 (Water level, water temperature, water conductivity and turbidity) was installed on 2nd July 2012 with the aim of providing a general assessment of quantity and quality of the running water network in Sagarmatha National Park (Dud Koshi basin) with a special focus on the evaluation of the climate change (CC) occurred at local and region level and its possible effects on water availability. From August 2014 the station is powered with photovoltaic system. Geographical coordinates: Latitude: 27° 53' 0.4" N Longitude: 86° 49' 6.3” E Elevation (m): 4222 Water Level: - Accuracy: ±0.05% FS; Range: 15 psi Water temperature: - Accuracy::±0.1°C; Range:-5°C ÷ +50°C; Methodology: EPA 170.1 Conductivity: -Accuracy::±5%; Methodology: Std.Mthds. 2510, EPA 120.1 Turbidity: -Accuracy::±5% or 2 NTU; Range:0 NTU ÷ 2000 NTU; Methodology: ISO 7027

At the AWS Lukla station the DQA035 Lsi-Lastem rain gauge is mounted on a 1,5 m pole. This model of Rain gauge has a 1.000 cmq collector area. The measurement device is composed of a collector cone and a double chamber bascule connected to a magnete that operates one (optional two) reed switch, which generates impulses that can be counted by external meters: each impulse is equal to 0.2 mm of rain (optional from 0.1 to 0.5 mm). The mechanical and electrical specifications are: - Collector surface area: 1000 cmq - Collector area diameter: 420 mm - Measurements range: 180 mm/hr - Resolution: o,2 mm/imp. (opt. 0,1; 0,3; 0,4; 0,5; mm/imp.) - Accuracy: 0-1 mm/min: 1%; 1-3 mm/min: 2%; 3-5 mm/min: 4%; 5-10 mm/min: 8% - Contact: 1 reed (opt. N.2 reed) 0,5 A/24V non inductive - Pulse duration: 100 msec.± 5 - Collector cone material: Brass - External housing material: Inox AISI30 - Tipping bucket material: Alluminium - Cable: 10 m - Weight: 6,3 kg - Power supply: /thermocover 100 W, 24 Vca/Va

In the Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, Himalayan species of Galliformes are poorly studied and their present status is unknown. We studied the distribution of three high-altitude species: Himalayan monal, blood pheasant, and Tibetan snowcock, comparing birds' distribution in relation to altitude and habitat in spring and autumn 2007. Our study area was at 3300–5000 m a.s.l., characterized by subalpine vegetation. A structural description of vegetation types was made on the basis of main habitat features. We observed two different patterns across the year. Group size differences are common during spring and autumn. Variation in habitat use and altitudinal ranges are evident in the snowcock and blood pheasant. The Himalayan monal distribution was influenced by anthropogenic resources.